Situation of scientific parapsychology: assessment and prospects
Originally published in "The Fortean Gazette" in 2002, this article seeks to provide a brief summary of scientific parapsychology, by reviewing its history, its results, its controversies, while trying to clarify its position and its specificity within the context of "Paranormal". Particular attention is paid to the situation in France.
Originally published in "The Fortean Gazette" in 2002, this article seeks to provide a brief summary of scientific parapsychology, by reviewing its history, its results, its controversies, while trying to clarify its position and its specificity within the context of "Paranormal". Particular attention is paid to the situation in France.
Definitions and issues of parapsychology
Parapsychology, young discipline which we can locate the origin to 1882 (founding of the Society for Psychical Research) or 1930 (its entry into a research laboratory), tries to emerge from the "nebula paranormal" by invoking its scientific methods and narrowly defining its object of study. Traditionally, the paranormal covers all scientific puzzles relating to rare and amazing phenomena, parapsychological phenomena which are a subset. There is currently no absolute consensus yet on how to set out the specifics of parapsychology, but one could argue the following definition, very general:
Parapsychology is the study rational, comprehensive, multidisciplinary and facts seem inexplicable in the present state of scientific knowledge, and involving the psyche and its interaction with the environment.
Phénomènes
Au cours du temps, plusieurs dénominations et définitions successives ont été utilisées, qui mettaient respectivement l’accent sur tel ou tel aspect des phénomènes, et qui souvent contenaient des hypothèses implicites. En premier lieu, l’appellation "métapsychique" a été proposée par Charles Richet pour désigner "l’étude des phénomènes mécaniques ou psychologiques dus à des forces qui semblent intelligentes ou à des puissances inconnues latentes dans l’intelligence humaine". En 1889, Max Dessoir forge le terme "parapsychologie" pour spécifier "toute une région frontière encore inconnue qui sépare les états psychologiques habituels des états pathologiques". Pour J.B Rhine, qui le premier a introduit la parapsychologie dans le milieu universitaire, la parapsychologie est simplement l’"étude des phénomènes paranormaux", c’est-à-dire télépathie, clairvoyance, précognition, et psychokinèse (voir plus loin les spécifications respectives). Cette définition, qui revient en fait à citer explicitement la liste des phénomènes étudiés, est encore majoritairement employée par l’école américaine et par la plupart des laboratoires dans le monde, bien que certains (à Edimbourg) insistent plus particulièrement sur l’aspect communicationnel : "Etude des moyens de communications entre les organismes et leur environnement, autres que ceux actuellement expliqués par la communauté scientifique." Thouless et Wiesner ont introduit en 1942 l’expression "Phénomène PSI" (et non "psy"), de la lettre grecque Psi, qui se voulait un terme neutre simplement destiné à désigner le "facteur inconnu" dans les expériences de parapsychologie, en opposition avec les communications sensori-motrices habituelles. Les Québécois ont ensuite adopté la dénomination "Psilogie", plus neutre selon eux que "parapsychologie". L’appellation "Psychotronique" a été également en vigueur un moment, notamment dans les pays de l’Est, mettant l’accent sur l’aspect énergétique supposé. Dans les années 70 en France, des réflexions philosophiques ont amené des chercheurs à proposer la définition suivante : "Dans l’état actuel des connaissances, les phénomènes psi peuvent être définis comme objectivement inexplicables (il sont quasi impossibles physiquement parlant), mais subjectivement compréhensibles (ils sont chargés de sens pour la ou les personnes concernées, au niveau conscient, ou, plus souvent, au niveau inconscient)." Certains ont étendu cette notion en posant que les phénomènes psi sont ceux qui contredisent le principe de causalité, d’autres que ces phénomènes ont la particularité de nous faire croire à la transcendance. On voit donc que selon les aspects particuliers que l’on considère : normal/pathologique, énergétique , communicationnel, causal/transgressif , comportemental, etc... les limites du champ d’étude psi peuvent varier. Cependant les phénomènes principaux (ESP et PK) sont reconnus par tous comme le noyau central du corpus parapsychologique. La notion d’intervention du psychisme est également fondamentale quelles que soient les approches. La parapsychologie, de même que la plupart des sciences, n’obtient pas le consensus de tous les chercheurs quant à son objet d’étude, et en cela elle s’inscrit comme toute entreprise humaine, dans une démarche socialement orientée.
phenomenaAlthough, historically, numerous typologies have been proposed, we can say that currently, the phenomena studied by parapsychology fall into two broad categories: ESP and PK
ESP (Extra Sensory Perception)
This term means that knowledge can be acquired outside of normal sensory contact.
Telepathy
Direct communication from psyche to psyche or "telepathy".
Perspicacity
Gain direct knowledge of an event, object, ... outside of normal sensory contact. Different phenomena may relate to the vision:
Psychometrics: clairvoyance conducted with the support of an object (eg watch that belonged to someone)
Autoscopy: visualization / vision from inside his own body.
Remote viewing (or remote viewing): insight from a remote location (the subject can describe the place as if it moved there).
Dowsing: becoming aware of events or objects with the help of a pendulum or divining rod (discovery of water, or missing persons). Dowsing can be either the place of research, either plan.
Xenoglossia: being able to speak (or understand) a language without learning it.
And of course all the other "mancies", that is to say clairvoyance performed using various media (crystal ball, cards, etc..).
Precognition / retrocognition
Knowledge of events, places, objects ... in the future (precognition) or past (retrocognition). Obviously precognition is the phenomenon that seems to defy our most common sense, since events have not yet occurred when the subject's knowledge.
PK
Psychokinesis, or psychocinèse, or telekinesis: direct action of mind over matter, without contact, without detectable physical means.
Macro-PK: Effects Psychokinesis directly observable to the naked eye (twisted metal, moving objects ...).
Micro-PK: Psychokinesis on atomic particles (eg. In random event generators) or evolving systems, and produced effects detectable only by statistical analysis which shows that random events do not have conformed more exactly randomly. Note: the experiences of rolls of the dice straddle the two categories (macro / micro).
Bio-PK: Psychokinesis on living matter (diseased organs, bacteria, plants, animal or plant cells etc. ...). Paranormal healing.
RSPK (Recurrent Spontaneous PK) or Poltergeist: phenomenon occurring spontaneously and repeatedly in the entourage of a person: raps (inexplicable noises), displacement or breakage of objects, stone rain, blows etc. ...
Ectoplasm: materialization of a substance from the body of a subject, and can take various forms: full or partial human body, objects or animals ...
Psycho-photography: prints a photographic film by the psyche.
Other phenomena
ESP and PK categories are the most studied by parapsychologists. However, many other paranormal phenomena may also be part of the corpus. Most can be explained in terms of ESP and PK, although these interpretations sometimes require complex intellectual constructs. We must not lose sight of the categories specified are only analytical frameworks established by convenience. Some of the following phenomena have been interpreted throughout history, either in a religious context, either as an indication of the survival of the soul.
Appearances: perception of people, animals, objects or entities ... in a given place, while their presence here is not possible (eg appearance of the Virgin, of deceased persons ("ghosts"), balls of light ...)
Obsessions: phenomena related to a place (usually castles or old houses) which produce the appearance of ghosts and phenomena often RSPK.
Mediumship: "possession" of an apparent about-medium by a "spirit", table levitation, raps, paranormal acquisition of information, receiving messages by "automatic writing" etc.. (Considered from disembodied spirits).
TCI (Instrumental Transcommunication): Registration of audio / video / photo etc ... images, messages, sounds or paranormal, awarded by the practitioners to the spirits of the dead.
Levitation: lifting heavy objects or the human body (often in the mystics).
Abnormalities psychosomatic fakirism, fire walking, stigma (paranormal appearance of marks on the body), inédie (survival without food), thanatose (preservation of bodies after death) etc.. : Phenomena in which the physiological limits of the human body seem repulsed.
OBE (Out of Body Experience): state of consciousness in which the subject has the impression that his conscience is separated from his physical body he can watch from a distance. During this experiment there may be paranormal acquisition of information.
NDE (Near Death Experiment): Experience performing primarily in a state of "imminent death", in which the subject experiences an OBE first then various sensations (passing through a tunnel toward a light suction, etc ...), and producing lasting psychological changes.
Hypnosis (formerly called "Sleepwalking"): state of high suggestibility, which can produce different phenomena (auto / hetero-fluoroscopy, clairvoyance, hyperaesthesia, anesthesia ...)
Synchronicities: temporal coincidences of two or more events, physical or mental, which are not causally related, but by their meaning.
Divination (by astrology, runes, the I Ching, etc ...) based on relations of synchronicity. This list is not exhaustive and we can notice that each historico-psycho-sociological phenomena generates its own, whose common ratio is the spirit / matter unusual.
Telepathy
Direct communication from psyche to psyche or "telepathy".
Perspicacity
Gain direct knowledge of an event, object, ... outside of normal sensory contact. Different phenomena may relate to the vision:
Psychometrics: clairvoyance conducted with the support of an object (eg watch that belonged to someone)
Autoscopy: visualization / vision from inside his own body.
Remote viewing (or remote viewing): insight from a remote location (the subject can describe the place as if it moved there).
Dowsing: becoming aware of events or objects with the help of a pendulum or divining rod (discovery of water, or missing persons). Dowsing can be either the place of research, either plan.
Xenoglossia: being able to speak (or understand) a language without learning it.
And of course all the other "mancies", that is to say clairvoyance performed using various media (crystal ball, cards, etc..).
Precognition / retrocognition
Knowledge of events, places, objects ... in the future (precognition) or past (retrocognition). Obviously precognition is the phenomenon that seems to defy our most common sense, since events have not yet occurred when the subject's knowledge.
PK
Psychokinesis, or psychocinèse, or telekinesis: direct action of mind over matter, without contact, without detectable physical means.
Macro-PK: Effects Psychokinesis directly observable to the naked eye (twisted metal, moving objects ...).
Micro-PK: Psychokinesis on atomic particles (eg. In random event generators) or evolving systems, and produced effects detectable only by statistical analysis which shows that random events do not have conformed more exactly randomly. Note: the experiences of rolls of the dice straddle the two categories (macro / micro).
Bio-PK: Psychokinesis on living matter (diseased organs, bacteria, plants, animal or plant cells etc. ...). Paranormal healing.
RSPK (Recurrent Spontaneous PK) or Poltergeist: phenomenon occurring spontaneously and repeatedly in the entourage of a person: raps (inexplicable noises), displacement or breakage of objects, stone rain, blows etc. ...
Ectoplasm: materialization of a substance from the body of a subject, and can take various forms: full or partial human body, objects or animals ...
Psycho-photography: prints a photographic film by the psyche.
Other phenomena
ESP and PK categories are the most studied by parapsychologists. However, many other paranormal phenomena may also be part of the corpus. Most can be explained in terms of ESP and PK, although these interpretations sometimes require complex intellectual constructs. We must not lose sight of the categories specified are only analytical frameworks established by convenience. Some of the following phenomena have been interpreted throughout history, either in a religious context, either as an indication of the survival of the soul.
Appearances: perception of people, animals, objects or entities ... in a given place, while their presence here is not possible (eg appearance of the Virgin, of deceased persons ("ghosts"), balls of light ...)
Obsessions: phenomena related to a place (usually castles or old houses) which produce the appearance of ghosts and phenomena often RSPK.
Mediumship: "possession" of an apparent about-medium by a "spirit", table levitation, raps, paranormal acquisition of information, receiving messages by "automatic writing" etc.. (Considered from disembodied spirits).
TCI (Instrumental Transcommunication): Registration of audio / video / photo etc ... images, messages, sounds or paranormal, awarded by the practitioners to the spirits of the dead.
Levitation: lifting heavy objects or the human body (often in the mystics).
Abnormalities psychosomatic fakirism, fire walking, stigma (paranormal appearance of marks on the body), inédie (survival without food), thanatose (preservation of bodies after death) etc.. : Phenomena in which the physiological limits of the human body seem repulsed.
OBE (Out of Body Experience): state of consciousness in which the subject has the impression that his conscience is separated from his physical body he can watch from a distance. During this experiment there may be paranormal acquisition of information.
NDE (Near Death Experiment): Experience performing primarily in a state of "imminent death", in which the subject experiences an OBE first then various sensations (passing through a tunnel toward a light suction, etc ...), and producing lasting psychological changes.
Hypnosis (formerly called "Sleepwalking"): state of high suggestibility, which can produce different phenomena (auto / hetero-fluoroscopy, clairvoyance, hyperaesthesia, anesthesia ...)
Synchronicities: temporal coincidences of two or more events, physical or mental, which are not causally related, but by their meaning.
Divination (by astrology, runes, the I Ching, etc ...) based on relations of synchronicity. This list is not exhaustive and we can notice that each historico-psycho-sociological phenomena generates its own, whose common ratio is the spirit / matter unusual.
historical
If since the dawn of human history, one can find evidence of events that may relate to paranormal phenomena (in shamanism, magic, witchcraft, miracles ...), the concern of their rational evaluation n has been possible with the development of science in general. It was the Greeks who first began to ask questions about them, while they were introducing the premise of philosophical and scientific research. During the Renaissance, the scientific and technical discoveries have gradually built at the expense of "old superstitions and religious beliefs." The witch hunts were a sign of a movement fundamentally anti-magic paranormal phenomenology which was rejected outright. The fact remains that in the 17th century, Francis Bacon, the instigator of the inductive method in science, first had the idea of using cards and dice for the scientific study of psychic phenomena. In the 18th century, Messmer and Puysegur introduced the "magnetic somnambulism" (therapeutic method based on what we now call hypnosis), which produced numbers of strange phenomena that we today call psychic. Mesmerism enjoyed popularity without limits, which can provoke academic debate, until the mid 19th century, which saw the ouster of magnetism official in France by the Academy of Medicine. Germany was more receptive to "sleepwalking" Chairs "magnetism" appeared at the University, and perhaps it is worth remembering that many German scientists and philosophers have paid close attention to the parapsychology (Schopenhauer, Hegel, Goethe, Schrenck-Notzing ...)
Around 1848, the Fox sisters launched the vogue of spiritualism, which was to eventually become a quasi-religious movement, but the phenomena which greatly intrigued many intellectuals. During the 19th century, the rise of "logical positivism" had led to consider the observation of facts as the only way of rigorous scientific knowledge, despite the opposition of the fundamental mentality "romantic". It is in this context that was founded in 1882 in England the SPR (Society for Psychical Research), whose aim was "to examine without prejudice or influence, and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or imagined, that appear to be inexplicable by any known general hypothesis ". Among the founding members of the RPD, there were great names of scientific or philosophical, some of which showed trends "spiritualists", while others said they were very reluctant to "the hypothesis of survival the soul ". All wanted to check and investigate psychic phenomena rationally, especially those produced by mediums during seances. These include, as the most famous members of the RPD: F. Myers, H.Sidgwick, E. Gurney, the Nobel Prize C. Richet, the philosopher H. Bergson, the astronomer C.Flammarion, and ... Sigmund Freud! The main contribution of the SPR was at that time to collect a huge amount of evidence from cases of telepathy, apparitions, etc.., While conducting surveys in order to give credibility to such testimony. The success of the RPD led American scholars, the philosopher and psychologist William James in 1885 to found the ASPR (American Society for Psychical Research). The RPD and ASPR have subsequently developed a large number of experiments in laboratory conditions, to establish reliable results. There is hardly a major European nation did not desire that eventually found his own research institution. A witness in France International Psychic Institute, created in 1919, recognized as a public foundation, and became famous among others for his studies on telepathy group (R.Warcollier) and his experiments with gifted subjects. And Dr. Geley he made a series of experiments with mediums and as F.Kluski J.Guzik, getting fascinating "casts ectoplasmic" Dr. Osty he undertook extensive studies on topics clairvoyants, painters Spiritualists, etc.. Moreover, IMI has published for many years a high quality journal, the "Psychic Journal." In 1920, parapsychological research began in the Netherlands, with Professor Tenhaeff who later become known for his work on spontaneous cases of clairvoyance, particularly with the famous light G. Croiset whose specialty was locating missing persons. In Germany, the fame of "the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology", founded by Hans Bender in 1930, was resounding. The institute has studied other premonitory dreams, and especially investigated seriously the poltergeist phenomena. Bender is the great forerunner regarding the first psychological / psychoanalytical psi phenomena. The Italian Society of Psychic born, in turn, in 1937, "as part of the official national culture", and distanced himself from spiritualism by saying the survival hypothesis "unscientific". The religious historian De Martino pushed for research into "ethno-psychic". Many countries, like Poland and Russia, participated in research in parapsychology.
The thirties marked a watershed in the history of parapsychology: in 1934 was founded the first institutional laboratory parapsychology at Duke University Durham (North Carolina), led by JB Rhine. The approach of Rhine, and his wife Louisa, were radically influence any future U.S. research in parapsychology. The contribution of Rhine can be summarized in five principles:
application of methods of experimental psychology to standardize procedures and make the experience more objective
evacuation of spiritualism (though initially, Rhine was especially interested in the study of the "soul") and restricted to the study of ESP and PK phenomena under the name of "Parapsychology"
using the statistical method introduced by C. Richet for the establishment of "experimental evidence"
study in each of these faculties and not just spectacular cases of major media (approach "universalist" an approach rather "elitist")
Research laws, principles, optimal conditions for obtaining of psi phenomena.
After the foundation stage, many experimental investigations in the United States continued in the tradition rhinienne, mostly within private research institutes. In France, opposition to the psychic has intensified after reacted forcefully against the part of materialistic skeptical authors, research became more difficult, were reduced to scattered and unofficial studies, while the development of psychiatry and psychoanalysis imposed an interpretation grid leaving little room for psi phenomena (in particular, as shown by B. Meheust, sleepwalking was purified and recovered as a "medical hypnosis"). Was born in 1957 an international association, the PA (Parapsychological Association), which soon acquire members worldwide. In 1959, the very academic AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science) recognized, not without raising many controversies, the Parapsychological Association "was indeed using scientific methods of investigation". From 1975 grew at a Quebec teaching psilogie at the institutional level, the University and Colleges in Higher Education and Professional. Several university departments in the United States created sections of parapsychology. The 70 were fruitful in terms of research, especially the United States where it developed in laboratories and institutes. Include at the time of the experiments and M.Ullmann S.Krippner at Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn (telepathy in the dream) and those of R.Targ and H. Puthoff at Stanford Research Institute (Remote Viewing) whose results were published in "Nature", and were included in the program "Stargate" financed by the CIA. We witnessed several innovations: the introduction by H. Schmidt around 1970 the use of random event generators in parapsychological research (PK and precognition), using the method of sensory deprivation called "ganzfeld" by Honorton, and the use of the statistical method of meta -analysis in the 80's, to take stock of past experiences. In France, where research had become more confidential include experiments on PK using the device "tychoscope" (P.Janin, R.Chauvin, ...), particularly in the context of GERP (Group of Studies and Research in Parapsychology), editor of "The Journal of Parapsychology", we also mention the experiments in ESP groups (H. Marcotte, D. If Ahmed) times in careful experimentation, the project AGAPE of B. Auriol. In 1997 appeared the OR3P (Organization for Research in Parapsychology and the Paranormal Phenomena says), led by Y.Lignon, which aims to promote and unite research and publishes a journal: "Journal of Parapsychology French ". The late 90s saw under the auspices of Mr. Varvoglis, the rebirth of the Psychic Institute, which due to financial problems had to suspend its activities, but even in the 80s was a great center of reflection and information dissemination. Fortunately in Germany, the Institute of Freiburg in 1992 having received a very important contribution of private funds, a large research center, the IGPP, begins to form, employing professionals (mainly psychologists specializing in the paranormal) to full-time. Hopefully, this center will become the European center for research in parapsychology, finally making this specialty access to the official status of a scientific discipline. The other major research universities at present in Europe are located in Edinburgh and Amsterdam. Finally in Germany also include the WGFP, publicly funded organization providing a host of psychological persons disturbed by paranormal activity, and developing theoretical explanatory models. One can notice that most of psi research were unable to establish that through bequests from wealthy donors (A. Koestler, J. Meyer, FP Bolton etc.) and through motivated and enthusiastic individuals, n 'having no need to defend their careers and not hesitating to invest all their free time in this research. Today parapsychology been a university education, but only in some countries (see § 7.1). In France isolated initiatives have taken place (Paris V, great schools ...) but currently only PL Rabeyron at the Institut Catholique de Lyon, teaches courses on the paranormal.
Around 1848, the Fox sisters launched the vogue of spiritualism, which was to eventually become a quasi-religious movement, but the phenomena which greatly intrigued many intellectuals. During the 19th century, the rise of "logical positivism" had led to consider the observation of facts as the only way of rigorous scientific knowledge, despite the opposition of the fundamental mentality "romantic". It is in this context that was founded in 1882 in England the SPR (Society for Psychical Research), whose aim was "to examine without prejudice or influence, and in a scientific spirit those faculties of man, real or imagined, that appear to be inexplicable by any known general hypothesis ". Among the founding members of the RPD, there were great names of scientific or philosophical, some of which showed trends "spiritualists", while others said they were very reluctant to "the hypothesis of survival the soul ". All wanted to check and investigate psychic phenomena rationally, especially those produced by mediums during seances. These include, as the most famous members of the RPD: F. Myers, H.Sidgwick, E. Gurney, the Nobel Prize C. Richet, the philosopher H. Bergson, the astronomer C.Flammarion, and ... Sigmund Freud! The main contribution of the SPR was at that time to collect a huge amount of evidence from cases of telepathy, apparitions, etc.., While conducting surveys in order to give credibility to such testimony. The success of the RPD led American scholars, the philosopher and psychologist William James in 1885 to found the ASPR (American Society for Psychical Research). The RPD and ASPR have subsequently developed a large number of experiments in laboratory conditions, to establish reliable results. There is hardly a major European nation did not desire that eventually found his own research institution. A witness in France International Psychic Institute, created in 1919, recognized as a public foundation, and became famous among others for his studies on telepathy group (R.Warcollier) and his experiments with gifted subjects. And Dr. Geley he made a series of experiments with mediums and as F.Kluski J.Guzik, getting fascinating "casts ectoplasmic" Dr. Osty he undertook extensive studies on topics clairvoyants, painters Spiritualists, etc.. Moreover, IMI has published for many years a high quality journal, the "Psychic Journal." In 1920, parapsychological research began in the Netherlands, with Professor Tenhaeff who later become known for his work on spontaneous cases of clairvoyance, particularly with the famous light G. Croiset whose specialty was locating missing persons. In Germany, the fame of "the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology", founded by Hans Bender in 1930, was resounding. The institute has studied other premonitory dreams, and especially investigated seriously the poltergeist phenomena. Bender is the great forerunner regarding the first psychological / psychoanalytical psi phenomena. The Italian Society of Psychic born, in turn, in 1937, "as part of the official national culture", and distanced himself from spiritualism by saying the survival hypothesis "unscientific". The religious historian De Martino pushed for research into "ethno-psychic". Many countries, like Poland and Russia, participated in research in parapsychology.
The thirties marked a watershed in the history of parapsychology: in 1934 was founded the first institutional laboratory parapsychology at Duke University Durham (North Carolina), led by JB Rhine. The approach of Rhine, and his wife Louisa, were radically influence any future U.S. research in parapsychology. The contribution of Rhine can be summarized in five principles:
application of methods of experimental psychology to standardize procedures and make the experience more objective
evacuation of spiritualism (though initially, Rhine was especially interested in the study of the "soul") and restricted to the study of ESP and PK phenomena under the name of "Parapsychology"
using the statistical method introduced by C. Richet for the establishment of "experimental evidence"
study in each of these faculties and not just spectacular cases of major media (approach "universalist" an approach rather "elitist")
Research laws, principles, optimal conditions for obtaining of psi phenomena.
After the foundation stage, many experimental investigations in the United States continued in the tradition rhinienne, mostly within private research institutes. In France, opposition to the psychic has intensified after reacted forcefully against the part of materialistic skeptical authors, research became more difficult, were reduced to scattered and unofficial studies, while the development of psychiatry and psychoanalysis imposed an interpretation grid leaving little room for psi phenomena (in particular, as shown by B. Meheust, sleepwalking was purified and recovered as a "medical hypnosis"). Was born in 1957 an international association, the PA (Parapsychological Association), which soon acquire members worldwide. In 1959, the very academic AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science) recognized, not without raising many controversies, the Parapsychological Association "was indeed using scientific methods of investigation". From 1975 grew at a Quebec teaching psilogie at the institutional level, the University and Colleges in Higher Education and Professional. Several university departments in the United States created sections of parapsychology. The 70 were fruitful in terms of research, especially the United States where it developed in laboratories and institutes. Include at the time of the experiments and M.Ullmann S.Krippner at Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn (telepathy in the dream) and those of R.Targ and H. Puthoff at Stanford Research Institute (Remote Viewing) whose results were published in "Nature", and were included in the program "Stargate" financed by the CIA. We witnessed several innovations: the introduction by H. Schmidt around 1970 the use of random event generators in parapsychological research (PK and precognition), using the method of sensory deprivation called "ganzfeld" by Honorton, and the use of the statistical method of meta -analysis in the 80's, to take stock of past experiences. In France, where research had become more confidential include experiments on PK using the device "tychoscope" (P.Janin, R.Chauvin, ...), particularly in the context of GERP (Group of Studies and Research in Parapsychology), editor of "The Journal of Parapsychology", we also mention the experiments in ESP groups (H. Marcotte, D. If Ahmed) times in careful experimentation, the project AGAPE of B. Auriol. In 1997 appeared the OR3P (Organization for Research in Parapsychology and the Paranormal Phenomena says), led by Y.Lignon, which aims to promote and unite research and publishes a journal: "Journal of Parapsychology French ". The late 90s saw under the auspices of Mr. Varvoglis, the rebirth of the Psychic Institute, which due to financial problems had to suspend its activities, but even in the 80s was a great center of reflection and information dissemination. Fortunately in Germany, the Institute of Freiburg in 1992 having received a very important contribution of private funds, a large research center, the IGPP, begins to form, employing professionals (mainly psychologists specializing in the paranormal) to full-time. Hopefully, this center will become the European center for research in parapsychology, finally making this specialty access to the official status of a scientific discipline. The other major research universities at present in Europe are located in Edinburgh and Amsterdam. Finally in Germany also include the WGFP, publicly funded organization providing a host of psychological persons disturbed by paranormal activity, and developing theoretical explanatory models. One can notice that most of psi research were unable to establish that through bequests from wealthy donors (A. Koestler, J. Meyer, FP Bolton etc.) and through motivated and enthusiastic individuals, n 'having no need to defend their careers and not hesitating to invest all their free time in this research. Today parapsychology been a university education, but only in some countries (see § 7.1). In France isolated initiatives have taken place (Paris V, great schools ...) but currently only PL Rabeyron at the Institut Catholique de Lyon, teaches courses on the paranormal.
Place of parapsychology in the paranormal
The paranormal is everywhere in our society, even if only in its literary form. It should be clarified what is the exact place of scientific parapsychology among the different social trends related to the paranormal, which currents are quite different, with different origins and objectives.
1 Practitioners / public
For the general public, the term "parapsychologist" usually corresponds to a practitioner of divination (seeing, astrologer, marabou ...) character with a certain attraction because of its supposed ability to exercise its powers "magic" in remediation to life's problems. Results of scientific parapsychology, the public retains the unique idea that psi phenomena are possible, it can deduce that there is no reason not to use them, especially when one is in a situation of great distress. According to various surveys published in the press, from 30 to 60% of French (depending on sources and years) "believe" in telepathy, clairvoyance or precognition. Erik Pigani, in his book "Psi: investigating paranormal phenomena", revealed in his many interviews with celebrities that most of them think that psi phenomena exist, but they must remain somewhat uncertain, unsure , fluctuating, to preserve the element of mystery in life. If the majority of Concerned Scientists believe that psychic phenomena constitute a legitimate area of research, the general public, it prefers to adopt a more romantic fascination / admiration / dream rather than practicing discernment to "separate the wheat from the tares, "distinguish fiction real phenomena.
2.Sects
Too many people, disillusioned with society, by their life course, or the materialistic aspect of daily concerns, allow themselves to indoctrinate in the sects that promise a better world generously and often use the fascination for the paranormal to indoctrinate their followers. Psi phenomena are never presented in its factual aspect, but integrated into the dogmatic constructions of the guru.
3 Spirituality
This current is mainly through membership in secret societies thought to possess a knowledge of "traditional", by an interest in the occult knowledge, or by consumption of specialty items (alchemical works, stones or talismans "magic" symbolic objects etc ...). The spring of this current research is social power, elitism, or interest in things hidden, secret history, or the sense of the sacred and rituals ... The scientific approach in the modern sense of the word is absent from these practices "traditional". It is rather an individual approach to "research initiation" based on knowledge handed down from generation to generation.
4 Spiritualism
Spiritualism, a movement launched in 1848 by the Fox sisters, is to invoke the "spirits of the dead" for paranormal events (noises, moving objects, levitations of tables ...) and messages ("incorporation" of medium, raps, Ouija, automatic writing, spirit photography, or ...). Spiritualism was soon to become a new religion, who professed the one hand the survival of the soul after the death of the mortal coil, and also the ability to contact the living dead from "the Beyond ", eg. through a topic "medium". It also conveniently explained the phenomena of "obsession". What was the most fascinating aspect of spiritualism was that the messages appeared to constitute "evidence" of rational belief, especially when these messages contained information that could be known as the death itself (in the same way that a "miracle" proves faithful to their religion can only be "true"). While Spiritualism was in large part responsible for the interest that scientists have given to the psychic, it has gradually distinguished from the spiritualist approach, in refusing to consider the hypothesis of survival as a scientific hypothesis (testable) and preferring to focus his research on psi faculties of the human psyche of living (clairvoyance, PK etc). Some researchers, like Rhine, preferred to let the spirit hypothesis aside while thinking she would return to the foreground when the research would have progressed. On the other hand, spiritualists generally have no interest in scientific research and are the foremost practitioners of a religion with its rituals, its effectiveness in the psychological comfort of the bereaved, etc. ... The enormous interest of spiritualism for psi research is that this belief generates a tremendous wealth of phenomena: one should not forget that eg. the famous ectoplasm appeared in a spiritualist. Unfortunately, the seance was held in conditions difficult to control, and parapsychologists, too eager to distinguish themselves from the spiritualist approach, many have evacuated this context, thereby reducing the scale of the phenomena. The modern form of spiritualism, TCI, using media such as video or audio cassettes to record messages. Spiritualism still retains enormous power of attraction: it is a fascinating and fun activity for young people, it gives a comfort to people who have suffered bereavement. However, all the speculation of the spirit doctrine can not be considered as pseudo-scientific, since starting from a basic premise of little merit (psi information as "proof" of survival, absolute credibility of messages from the dead).
5 Media / sensational / cinema / Science Fiction
The cinema, science fiction, and especially television series (X-Files, Poltergeist ...) are based on psi phenomena by giving a very distorted picture. In general, the phenomena are amplified and aggressive and violent effects. The "psi powers" become faculties controlled, fair and always available. Scenarios often mix parapsychological case histories to "entities" as demons, monsters, vampires, aliens, etc.. Psi phenomena remain a great inspiration for fiction, literature, art or film, because of their fascinating aspect and their possible metaphysical implications. In France, the news media are always placed in terms of "Believing? / Do not believe?", "Info or scam", etc. ... and objective scientific presentations are rare, or be lost in a farrago of interviews with implausible characters or sensational stories little verifiable. The media often use the results of scientific parapsychology topics to build "sensational" that allows a high audience rating. Therefore, those wishing to get an objective opinion on scientific parapsychology can not give credence to television or mass-market newspapers. For information, you have actually read the books and articles of researchers themselves, and possibly the writings of the "skeptics".
6 Holistic Health / Healing
In our hyper-medicalized society, many individuals who continue to suffer without finding answers to the orthodox medical practices. As these beings are turning in desperation to alternative therapists: acupuncturists, homeopaths, hypnotists, ... and other healers of all types. These practitioners usually use in front of "technical" but in reality the healings occur on a paranormal, that is to say scientifically inexplicable. Generally, these therapists do not seek to validate their practice by scientists, and the French research in this area are rare and not well received (see J.Benveniste with homeopathy). Some parapsychologists have yet conducted surveys and experiments in the field of paranormal healings and placebos. Meanwhile, more and more believers are taking steps to enrolling in prayer (charismatic movements ...) or pilgrimage (Lourdes ...). As it is absolutely essential to preserve the belief for therapeutic efficacy, and despite the existence of a Medical Bureau in Lourdes, few are motivated to a rational examination of this type of healing called "miraculous". United States, however, research on alternative medicine is booming, with public and private funds very important.
For the general public, the term "parapsychologist" usually corresponds to a practitioner of divination (seeing, astrologer, marabou ...) character with a certain attraction because of its supposed ability to exercise its powers "magic" in remediation to life's problems. Results of scientific parapsychology, the public retains the unique idea that psi phenomena are possible, it can deduce that there is no reason not to use them, especially when one is in a situation of great distress. According to various surveys published in the press, from 30 to 60% of French (depending on sources and years) "believe" in telepathy, clairvoyance or precognition. Erik Pigani, in his book "Psi: investigating paranormal phenomena", revealed in his many interviews with celebrities that most of them think that psi phenomena exist, but they must remain somewhat uncertain, unsure , fluctuating, to preserve the element of mystery in life. If the majority of Concerned Scientists believe that psychic phenomena constitute a legitimate area of research, the general public, it prefers to adopt a more romantic fascination / admiration / dream rather than practicing discernment to "separate the wheat from the tares, "distinguish fiction real phenomena.
2.Sects
Too many people, disillusioned with society, by their life course, or the materialistic aspect of daily concerns, allow themselves to indoctrinate in the sects that promise a better world generously and often use the fascination for the paranormal to indoctrinate their followers. Psi phenomena are never presented in its factual aspect, but integrated into the dogmatic constructions of the guru.
3 Spirituality
This current is mainly through membership in secret societies thought to possess a knowledge of "traditional", by an interest in the occult knowledge, or by consumption of specialty items (alchemical works, stones or talismans "magic" symbolic objects etc ...). The spring of this current research is social power, elitism, or interest in things hidden, secret history, or the sense of the sacred and rituals ... The scientific approach in the modern sense of the word is absent from these practices "traditional". It is rather an individual approach to "research initiation" based on knowledge handed down from generation to generation.
4 Spiritualism
Spiritualism, a movement launched in 1848 by the Fox sisters, is to invoke the "spirits of the dead" for paranormal events (noises, moving objects, levitations of tables ...) and messages ("incorporation" of medium, raps, Ouija, automatic writing, spirit photography, or ...). Spiritualism was soon to become a new religion, who professed the one hand the survival of the soul after the death of the mortal coil, and also the ability to contact the living dead from "the Beyond ", eg. through a topic "medium". It also conveniently explained the phenomena of "obsession". What was the most fascinating aspect of spiritualism was that the messages appeared to constitute "evidence" of rational belief, especially when these messages contained information that could be known as the death itself (in the same way that a "miracle" proves faithful to their religion can only be "true"). While Spiritualism was in large part responsible for the interest that scientists have given to the psychic, it has gradually distinguished from the spiritualist approach, in refusing to consider the hypothesis of survival as a scientific hypothesis (testable) and preferring to focus his research on psi faculties of the human psyche of living (clairvoyance, PK etc). Some researchers, like Rhine, preferred to let the spirit hypothesis aside while thinking she would return to the foreground when the research would have progressed. On the other hand, spiritualists generally have no interest in scientific research and are the foremost practitioners of a religion with its rituals, its effectiveness in the psychological comfort of the bereaved, etc. ... The enormous interest of spiritualism for psi research is that this belief generates a tremendous wealth of phenomena: one should not forget that eg. the famous ectoplasm appeared in a spiritualist. Unfortunately, the seance was held in conditions difficult to control, and parapsychologists, too eager to distinguish themselves from the spiritualist approach, many have evacuated this context, thereby reducing the scale of the phenomena. The modern form of spiritualism, TCI, using media such as video or audio cassettes to record messages. Spiritualism still retains enormous power of attraction: it is a fascinating and fun activity for young people, it gives a comfort to people who have suffered bereavement. However, all the speculation of the spirit doctrine can not be considered as pseudo-scientific, since starting from a basic premise of little merit (psi information as "proof" of survival, absolute credibility of messages from the dead).
5 Media / sensational / cinema / Science Fiction
The cinema, science fiction, and especially television series (X-Files, Poltergeist ...) are based on psi phenomena by giving a very distorted picture. In general, the phenomena are amplified and aggressive and violent effects. The "psi powers" become faculties controlled, fair and always available. Scenarios often mix parapsychological case histories to "entities" as demons, monsters, vampires, aliens, etc.. Psi phenomena remain a great inspiration for fiction, literature, art or film, because of their fascinating aspect and their possible metaphysical implications. In France, the news media are always placed in terms of "Believing? / Do not believe?", "Info or scam", etc. ... and objective scientific presentations are rare, or be lost in a farrago of interviews with implausible characters or sensational stories little verifiable. The media often use the results of scientific parapsychology topics to build "sensational" that allows a high audience rating. Therefore, those wishing to get an objective opinion on scientific parapsychology can not give credence to television or mass-market newspapers. For information, you have actually read the books and articles of researchers themselves, and possibly the writings of the "skeptics".
6 Holistic Health / Healing
In our hyper-medicalized society, many individuals who continue to suffer without finding answers to the orthodox medical practices. As these beings are turning in desperation to alternative therapists: acupuncturists, homeopaths, hypnotists, ... and other healers of all types. These practitioners usually use in front of "technical" but in reality the healings occur on a paranormal, that is to say scientifically inexplicable. Generally, these therapists do not seek to validate their practice by scientists, and the French research in this area are rare and not well received (see J.Benveniste with homeopathy). Some parapsychologists have yet conducted surveys and experiments in the field of paranormal healings and placebos. Meanwhile, more and more believers are taking steps to enrolling in prayer (charismatic movements ...) or pilgrimage (Lourdes ...). As it is absolutely essential to preserve the belief for therapeutic efficacy, and despite the existence of a Medical Bureau in Lourdes, few are motivated to a rational examination of this type of healing called "miraculous". United States, however, research on alternative medicine is booming, with public and private funds very important.
Research in the world
1 The methods
Parapsychologists use scientific methods of other sciences (hard sciences or humanities), but must demonstrate trans-disciplinarity, and invent novel methods of control in the laboratory experiment. It must be recognized that funding for psi research are very limited, many studies are done in an amateurish that give rise to criticism, especially since some researchers are enthusiastic believers, we can blame them for their lack of rigor. Nevertheless one should not generalize: many searches are done within official institutions by respectable scientists in contexts more or less serious than those associated with other research. In journals and books publishing research in parapsychology, most items fall into six categories, which I illustrated by some examples:
case studies of spontaneous
Spontaneous psi phenomena can be studied in depth by field surveys, collections of stories, clinical interviews, etc.. They are extremely convincing, but there are few cases, however, indisputable (with many witnesses very reliable) and it remains unfortunately often at the stage of the story. The major advantage of the study of spontaneous cases, which are at least meaningful coincidences, is not the establishment of a "proof", but rather the exploration of the psychodynamics psi. Examples of serious work in this field: "Phantasms of the living", Gurney, Myers, Podmore "A light in the city," team F.Laplantine
sociological or anthropological
Some parapsychologists are also sociologists or anthropologists, or collaborate with other academic sociological work. Using standard statistical tools, we can study eg. the percentage of the population have been thinking of psi phenomena, or believing in psi, etc.., crossing them with sociological variables (age, educational level, gender, etc..) ex: "Hands of Time", F. Favre, Journal of Parapsychology anthropological investigations are less frequent but provide valuable information on major changes in the phenomenology psi within different cultures, allowing further cross-cultural comparisons exciting. Ex: "The magical world," De Martino and "Appearances / Disappearances", dir. G.Bertin
analytical studies
The statistical analysis of large databases, especially through the method of meta-analysis, can arrive at reliable conclusions about the existence of psi. The principle of meta-analysis is to calculate the aggregate results on a large number of experiments, positive or negative, exhaustively. ex: Meta-analyzes of Honorton / Hyman.
syntheses and philosophical, historical, psychological
Experimentation alone is not enough and it is sometimes necessary to pause to order, classify and analyze the acquired data, attempting to obtain the invariants, or to obtain a socio-historical perspective. At this price you will keep the critical distance necessary to avoid engaging in blind alleys. Ex: "Treaty of parapsychology", R. Sudre and "Sleepwalking and mediumship", B. Méheust
theoretical research
Contrary to what one might think, many theoretical models of psi have been proposed. They usually focus on one particular aspect of psi (physical, symbolic, psychological, etc..) And use complex conceptual constructions. They are mostly difficult to test and do not win the support of colleagues. Nevertheless allow some to experiment within a "paradigm" specific. Eg quantum model of H. Schmidt, "Animism and space-time" of F. Favre.
laboratory experiments
Most lab experiments using the methods of experimental psychology. The general diagram of a psi experiment consists of four elements:
one (or more) about which we test the psi faculty
a target: to collect information (if ESP) or device to influence (if PK)
an experimenter, the initiator and guarantor of serious research experience
an obstacle, making it impossible to contact sensorimotor conventional subject with the target. We conclude that there was psi if the relationship is on-target "statistically significant" that is to say if, based on criteria of mathematical statistics, the observations differ from what may be expected the probability of chance , and despite the presence of the obstacle which guarantees the non-contact between subject and target. The occurrence of psi is defined in the negative, which is a "success without conventional sensorimotor contact", but you can not really say which factor played only by chance that the hypothesis is statistically inconsistent with the observations . The usual statistical decision rule is to reject the hypothesis of chance and when observations are less than p = 5/100 chance of being achieved if chance alone is involved. (Notation: p <0.05). This amounts to taking a gamble with a 20 against, and the practice of science (from biology to psychology) showed that it was an attitude of "reasonable". However the more demanding threshold p = 1/100, used sporadically elsewhere, is much more frequently in parapsychology, and it happened quite often to parapsychologists to use much lower thresholds.
Examples of experiences: the subject must guess the order of a card game played by a machine, the subject must draw a drawing made by another person in another room, the subject must influence a Random Number Generator for that it gives more than one zeros etc..
The problems of applying the experimental method in parapsychology.
As it is to show the existence of psi, and its potential to violate the obstacle (distance, time, people, Faraday cages etc.), the method is perfectly valid - except that the use of statistics can always be controversial: although the likelihood that chance alone has played is tiny, it is never zero, so there is always a small uncertainty due to our misunderstanding of the nature of chance - . By cons, when it comes to determine the characteristics and correlates of psi, this type of experiment is quite inadequate. Indeed, the classical experimental method involves the isolation of factors that are varied one by one. Here, the ability of PSI to pass over the obstacle (by definition) do not isolate the factors, and we can not know what is responsible for the effect-psi. Example: a randomized light moves next to caged animals. If the results show that the device is significantly approach the cage, which is responsible for the PK? : Animals, the investigator, the people of the lab, the person who financed the experience etc. ... (Potentially worldwide). With psi, it is impossible to have a closed system, so an experimental setting strict. Positive experiences have also taken place on the influence of a global collective consciousness and a random event generator (Global Consciousness Project), which does not fail to raise questions and paradoxes. For thirty years we have highlighted in parapsychology an "experimenter effect" which states that subjects are more successful than others in correlation with desire, a mood-or preconceptions of the experimenter and this even if the subjects and the experimenter does not know. Therefore, to overcome this problem, find particularly sophisticated methodologies that can actually be evidence that if we reach a good level of reproducibility (eg. Ganzfeld experience that would work regardless of the experimenter and the lab) . Most experimenters in parapsychology completely ignore or pretend to ignore this problem, which is not put forward by skeptics because as impossible for them to believe that psi, and also threatening to the experimental method in other sciences. We can hypothesize that in practice, this effect can be neglected experimenter, would still have to do some research to determine under what conditions.
2 Current status of research
United States currently, research is mainly experimental. Military programs were abandoned due to budget cuts, they did not give sufficiently reproducible results, or at least readily available. In Germany, the approach is currently more clinical and based on surveys and interviews. In France attempts are very punctual and the work can not be institutionally as IMI has not established an operational structure of national research. Current international only a few dozen people are involved in parapsychological research full time. In the U.S., research funds have decreased considerably in recent decades, and several laboratories have closed for lack of profitability. Even in North America, parapsychology is still a "scientific controversy". In France, more than twenty people are somewhat regular publications on topics of scientific parapsychology. However over the world, many theories related to similar subjects of parapsychology are supported each year, mostly through traditional disciplines: medicine, biology, sociology, etc. ... The experimental methodology has evolved considerably since the 30s: Now everything is automated, it is a systematic use of computers for recording and analyzing the results, minimizing the causes of human errors, the protocols were refined to completely eliminate any possibility of contact between subjects and targets, and finally using sophisticated devices such as GNA, polygraphs, etc. boxes sensory deprivation. We can no longer blame this type of experiment its lack of seriousness. There is now little point in repeating the experiments demonstrate the existence of psi that were hundreds of times. It is necessary to guide experimental research into the conditions of occurrence of psi (with the methodological precautions mentioned above) and preferred clinical approach to achieve a better understanding of how the dynamics psi.
Parapsychologists use scientific methods of other sciences (hard sciences or humanities), but must demonstrate trans-disciplinarity, and invent novel methods of control in the laboratory experiment. It must be recognized that funding for psi research are very limited, many studies are done in an amateurish that give rise to criticism, especially since some researchers are enthusiastic believers, we can blame them for their lack of rigor. Nevertheless one should not generalize: many searches are done within official institutions by respectable scientists in contexts more or less serious than those associated with other research. In journals and books publishing research in parapsychology, most items fall into six categories, which I illustrated by some examples:
case studies of spontaneous
Spontaneous psi phenomena can be studied in depth by field surveys, collections of stories, clinical interviews, etc.. They are extremely convincing, but there are few cases, however, indisputable (with many witnesses very reliable) and it remains unfortunately often at the stage of the story. The major advantage of the study of spontaneous cases, which are at least meaningful coincidences, is not the establishment of a "proof", but rather the exploration of the psychodynamics psi. Examples of serious work in this field: "Phantasms of the living", Gurney, Myers, Podmore "A light in the city," team F.Laplantine
sociological or anthropological
Some parapsychologists are also sociologists or anthropologists, or collaborate with other academic sociological work. Using standard statistical tools, we can study eg. the percentage of the population have been thinking of psi phenomena, or believing in psi, etc.., crossing them with sociological variables (age, educational level, gender, etc..) ex: "Hands of Time", F. Favre, Journal of Parapsychology anthropological investigations are less frequent but provide valuable information on major changes in the phenomenology psi within different cultures, allowing further cross-cultural comparisons exciting. Ex: "The magical world," De Martino and "Appearances / Disappearances", dir. G.Bertin
analytical studies
The statistical analysis of large databases, especially through the method of meta-analysis, can arrive at reliable conclusions about the existence of psi. The principle of meta-analysis is to calculate the aggregate results on a large number of experiments, positive or negative, exhaustively. ex: Meta-analyzes of Honorton / Hyman.
syntheses and philosophical, historical, psychological
Experimentation alone is not enough and it is sometimes necessary to pause to order, classify and analyze the acquired data, attempting to obtain the invariants, or to obtain a socio-historical perspective. At this price you will keep the critical distance necessary to avoid engaging in blind alleys. Ex: "Treaty of parapsychology", R. Sudre and "Sleepwalking and mediumship", B. Méheust
theoretical research
Contrary to what one might think, many theoretical models of psi have been proposed. They usually focus on one particular aspect of psi (physical, symbolic, psychological, etc..) And use complex conceptual constructions. They are mostly difficult to test and do not win the support of colleagues. Nevertheless allow some to experiment within a "paradigm" specific. Eg quantum model of H. Schmidt, "Animism and space-time" of F. Favre.
laboratory experiments
Most lab experiments using the methods of experimental psychology. The general diagram of a psi experiment consists of four elements:
one (or more) about which we test the psi faculty
a target: to collect information (if ESP) or device to influence (if PK)
an experimenter, the initiator and guarantor of serious research experience
an obstacle, making it impossible to contact sensorimotor conventional subject with the target. We conclude that there was psi if the relationship is on-target "statistically significant" that is to say if, based on criteria of mathematical statistics, the observations differ from what may be expected the probability of chance , and despite the presence of the obstacle which guarantees the non-contact between subject and target. The occurrence of psi is defined in the negative, which is a "success without conventional sensorimotor contact", but you can not really say which factor played only by chance that the hypothesis is statistically inconsistent with the observations . The usual statistical decision rule is to reject the hypothesis of chance and when observations are less than p = 5/100 chance of being achieved if chance alone is involved. (Notation: p <0.05). This amounts to taking a gamble with a 20 against, and the practice of science (from biology to psychology) showed that it was an attitude of "reasonable". However the more demanding threshold p = 1/100, used sporadically elsewhere, is much more frequently in parapsychology, and it happened quite often to parapsychologists to use much lower thresholds.
Examples of experiences: the subject must guess the order of a card game played by a machine, the subject must draw a drawing made by another person in another room, the subject must influence a Random Number Generator for that it gives more than one zeros etc..
The problems of applying the experimental method in parapsychology.
As it is to show the existence of psi, and its potential to violate the obstacle (distance, time, people, Faraday cages etc.), the method is perfectly valid - except that the use of statistics can always be controversial: although the likelihood that chance alone has played is tiny, it is never zero, so there is always a small uncertainty due to our misunderstanding of the nature of chance - . By cons, when it comes to determine the characteristics and correlates of psi, this type of experiment is quite inadequate. Indeed, the classical experimental method involves the isolation of factors that are varied one by one. Here, the ability of PSI to pass over the obstacle (by definition) do not isolate the factors, and we can not know what is responsible for the effect-psi. Example: a randomized light moves next to caged animals. If the results show that the device is significantly approach the cage, which is responsible for the PK? : Animals, the investigator, the people of the lab, the person who financed the experience etc. ... (Potentially worldwide). With psi, it is impossible to have a closed system, so an experimental setting strict. Positive experiences have also taken place on the influence of a global collective consciousness and a random event generator (Global Consciousness Project), which does not fail to raise questions and paradoxes. For thirty years we have highlighted in parapsychology an "experimenter effect" which states that subjects are more successful than others in correlation with desire, a mood-or preconceptions of the experimenter and this even if the subjects and the experimenter does not know. Therefore, to overcome this problem, find particularly sophisticated methodologies that can actually be evidence that if we reach a good level of reproducibility (eg. Ganzfeld experience that would work regardless of the experimenter and the lab) . Most experimenters in parapsychology completely ignore or pretend to ignore this problem, which is not put forward by skeptics because as impossible for them to believe that psi, and also threatening to the experimental method in other sciences. We can hypothesize that in practice, this effect can be neglected experimenter, would still have to do some research to determine under what conditions.
2 Current status of research
United States currently, research is mainly experimental. Military programs were abandoned due to budget cuts, they did not give sufficiently reproducible results, or at least readily available. In Germany, the approach is currently more clinical and based on surveys and interviews. In France attempts are very punctual and the work can not be institutionally as IMI has not established an operational structure of national research. Current international only a few dozen people are involved in parapsychological research full time. In the U.S., research funds have decreased considerably in recent decades, and several laboratories have closed for lack of profitability. Even in North America, parapsychology is still a "scientific controversy". In France, more than twenty people are somewhat regular publications on topics of scientific parapsychology. However over the world, many theories related to similar subjects of parapsychology are supported each year, mostly through traditional disciplines: medicine, biology, sociology, etc. ... The experimental methodology has evolved considerably since the 30s: Now everything is automated, it is a systematic use of computers for recording and analyzing the results, minimizing the causes of human errors, the protocols were refined to completely eliminate any possibility of contact between subjects and targets, and finally using sophisticated devices such as GNA, polygraphs, etc. boxes sensory deprivation. We can no longer blame this type of experiment its lack of seriousness. There is now little point in repeating the experiments demonstrate the existence of psi that were hundreds of times. It is necessary to guide experimental research into the conditions of occurrence of psi (with the methodological precautions mentioned above) and preferred clinical approach to achieve a better understanding of how the dynamics psi.
results
1 Evidence of the existence of psi.
For each phenomenon, the most conclusive experiments are presented.
ESP
Telepathy
This is the most established faculty. JB Rhine's team has performed hundreds of experiments, the most impressive experience is "Pearce-Pratt," which had a positive highly significant (p <10-22) experiments in dream telepathy Laboratory of the Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn are also very remarkable (about 450 sessions, p <1/75. 106) Finally, the experience of sensory deprivation Honorton also had positive results. In 1982, C. Honorton presented the first meta-analysis on the complete set of telepathic experiments with sensory deprivation. Hyman with the skeptic, the calculations were redone, but we obtained p <1/1010.
Perspicacity
At least 185 experiments were carried out cards from the 1880s to 1940s, and the meta-analysis shows that the overall results were very positive. R.Targ / H.Puthoff / E.May conducted experiments of Remote Viewing at Stanford Research Institute, research funded by the CIA, NASA ... and whose results were published in "Nature" with p <1/1020.
Precognition
Honorton and Ferrari conducted a meta-analysis of 309 studies on tests of forced choice precognition. Here p <1/1024. D.Radin conducted an experiment on unconscious nervous system responses to future events: statistically significant results and tending to the regularity. Note that some subjects showed very positive ESP results regularly to several months or years apart: H.Pearce, P.Stepanek, B.Dellmore, L.Harribance, M.Bessent ...
PK
The sessions "in ectoplasm" with the subject E.Carrière, led by Schrenk-Notzing A.Bisson and early 20th century, demonstrated extremely surprising phenomena that have been photographed, in conditions of very strict control (stripped medium , inspected etc..). Similarly, meetings with R.Schneider and F. Kluski controlled by G. Geley to Psychic Institute, have left the form of casts of the objective traces of ectoplasm observed. In terms of poltergeists, hundreds of cases were found, including police reports, and most famous of them, one for which the survey was the most thorough is that of Rosenheim (studied by team H.Bender). Macro-PK, experiences with, and subject U.Geller JPGirard were positive, particularly those conducted by Crussard / Bouvaist in the laboratory of Pechiney in 1976, however the skills of these subjects in terms of illusionism incite a some prudent reserve. Meta-analysis experiments dice gave p <1/109. Helmut Schmidt, who first introduced the method of GNA, wanted in the 90 respond to criticism by engaging skeptics to a series of experiments: these studies were extended to 5 times with, at the end of a cumulative study, p <1/12000. In France, experiments with the device tychoscope have "come down" to p <1/1018 (A.Roux). Finally bio-PK, at least 130 publications have been made, and 56 of these studies have had results of 100 chances against one.
2 Correlates of psi
Although it is very difficult, for methodological reasons, to reach rigorous conclusions about the correlates of psi (see § 5.1), psi research, however, provided some information on how psi works:
The ESP is not based on a physical channel such as electromagnetic waves, ultrasonic, etc. ... Experiments with Faraday cages, or at distances of thousands of kilometers, have had positive results.
Psi is independent of distance and time.
Results vary from one subject to another and from one test to another, which leads to a non-Reproducibility in the strict sense. Yet there, as in any human science, reproducibility statistic that can be demonstrated beyond doubt in the meta-analysis. Furthermore, experiments with sensory deprivation or unconscious functions, we arrive at a certain reproducibility.
Most psi experiments show a decline effect: success is more important at the beginning until the middle of the test, and sometimes go back to the end (the famous U-shaped curve).
Sometimes, we get the "psi-missing", ie test scores significantly much lower than expected by chance (as if the subjects "were missing" voluntarily).
As its name does not indicate, the PSE is mostly rely on sensory circuits (visualizations, hearings voices, smells, tastes, tactile sensations ...) without intervention of the sense organs themselves (the eyes do not "see", the ear does not "hear" it).
The poltergeist phenomena seem to be focused around an individual (often a young person with psychological problems), and / or certain objects.
PK phenomena appear more easily in groups in which individuals are in a state of passive attention.
The magnitude of effects PK does not depend on the complexity of the experimental, but seems guided by the only goal.
In the experiments, although we can not determine a causal relationship between the subject's actions and outcomes psi, you can always look for against the final intention. Determinism is therefore final and not causal.
It has often demonstrated an effect called "Goat / sheep" topics (and experimenters) in favor of psi have far superior results to subjects who do not believe in psi.
In some families, psi phenomena are more common than others, hence the assumption of some hereditary component.
It should be reserved on the elements that seemed, in some studies to be "facilitators" of psi: the conviction of success, extroversion, positive mood, affectivity linking subjects in the experiments of telepathy, attention to the passive PK, motivation, relaxation, meditation, alpha waves, hypnosis and EMC in general. and negative factors: fatigue, illness, a stressful environment or negative, various psychotropic substances.
However the effect of these factors in the various experiments that were performed could only reflect the prejudices of the experimenters (see § 5.1).
In addition, here are some conclusions reached by some theorists of psi: The PSI is a source of myths, and the parapsychologist must analyze these myths about the psycho-sociological. Any event psi is the minimum meaningful coincidence, partly as a result of an arbitrary structure in which it makes sense. The PSI shows the influence of the intentionality of the psyche of the material world. Considering that psi exists, a methodology to prove the survival of the soul seems impossible to implement (indeterminacy). Psi phenomena are "elusive", that is to say, they often slip away when attempting to objectification.
VII. Princip
For each phenomenon, the most conclusive experiments are presented.
ESP
Telepathy
This is the most established faculty. JB Rhine's team has performed hundreds of experiments, the most impressive experience is "Pearce-Pratt," which had a positive highly significant (p <10-22) experiments in dream telepathy Laboratory of the Maimonides Hospital in Brooklyn are also very remarkable (about 450 sessions, p <1/75. 106) Finally, the experience of sensory deprivation Honorton also had positive results. In 1982, C. Honorton presented the first meta-analysis on the complete set of telepathic experiments with sensory deprivation. Hyman with the skeptic, the calculations were redone, but we obtained p <1/1010.
Perspicacity
At least 185 experiments were carried out cards from the 1880s to 1940s, and the meta-analysis shows that the overall results were very positive. R.Targ / H.Puthoff / E.May conducted experiments of Remote Viewing at Stanford Research Institute, research funded by the CIA, NASA ... and whose results were published in "Nature" with p <1/1020.
Precognition
Honorton and Ferrari conducted a meta-analysis of 309 studies on tests of forced choice precognition. Here p <1/1024. D.Radin conducted an experiment on unconscious nervous system responses to future events: statistically significant results and tending to the regularity. Note that some subjects showed very positive ESP results regularly to several months or years apart: H.Pearce, P.Stepanek, B.Dellmore, L.Harribance, M.Bessent ...
PK
The sessions "in ectoplasm" with the subject E.Carrière, led by Schrenk-Notzing A.Bisson and early 20th century, demonstrated extremely surprising phenomena that have been photographed, in conditions of very strict control (stripped medium , inspected etc..). Similarly, meetings with R.Schneider and F. Kluski controlled by G. Geley to Psychic Institute, have left the form of casts of the objective traces of ectoplasm observed. In terms of poltergeists, hundreds of cases were found, including police reports, and most famous of them, one for which the survey was the most thorough is that of Rosenheim (studied by team H.Bender). Macro-PK, experiences with, and subject U.Geller JPGirard were positive, particularly those conducted by Crussard / Bouvaist in the laboratory of Pechiney in 1976, however the skills of these subjects in terms of illusionism incite a some prudent reserve. Meta-analysis experiments dice gave p <1/109. Helmut Schmidt, who first introduced the method of GNA, wanted in the 90 respond to criticism by engaging skeptics to a series of experiments: these studies were extended to 5 times with, at the end of a cumulative study, p <1/12000. In France, experiments with the device tychoscope have "come down" to p <1/1018 (A.Roux). Finally bio-PK, at least 130 publications have been made, and 56 of these studies have had results of 100 chances against one.
2 Correlates of psi
Although it is very difficult, for methodological reasons, to reach rigorous conclusions about the correlates of psi (see § 5.1), psi research, however, provided some information on how psi works:
The ESP is not based on a physical channel such as electromagnetic waves, ultrasonic, etc. ... Experiments with Faraday cages, or at distances of thousands of kilometers, have had positive results.
Psi is independent of distance and time.
Results vary from one subject to another and from one test to another, which leads to a non-Reproducibility in the strict sense. Yet there, as in any human science, reproducibility statistic that can be demonstrated beyond doubt in the meta-analysis. Furthermore, experiments with sensory deprivation or unconscious functions, we arrive at a certain reproducibility.
Most psi experiments show a decline effect: success is more important at the beginning until the middle of the test, and sometimes go back to the end (the famous U-shaped curve).
Sometimes, we get the "psi-missing", ie test scores significantly much lower than expected by chance (as if the subjects "were missing" voluntarily).
As its name does not indicate, the PSE is mostly rely on sensory circuits (visualizations, hearings voices, smells, tastes, tactile sensations ...) without intervention of the sense organs themselves (the eyes do not "see", the ear does not "hear" it).
The poltergeist phenomena seem to be focused around an individual (often a young person with psychological problems), and / or certain objects.
PK phenomena appear more easily in groups in which individuals are in a state of passive attention.
The magnitude of effects PK does not depend on the complexity of the experimental, but seems guided by the only goal.
In the experiments, although we can not determine a causal relationship between the subject's actions and outcomes psi, you can always look for against the final intention. Determinism is therefore final and not causal.
It has often demonstrated an effect called "Goat / sheep" topics (and experimenters) in favor of psi have far superior results to subjects who do not believe in psi.
In some families, psi phenomena are more common than others, hence the assumption of some hereditary component.
It should be reserved on the elements that seemed, in some studies to be "facilitators" of psi: the conviction of success, extroversion, positive mood, affectivity linking subjects in the experiments of telepathy, attention to the passive PK, motivation, relaxation, meditation, alpha waves, hypnosis and EMC in general. and negative factors: fatigue, illness, a stressful environment or negative, various psychotropic substances.
However the effect of these factors in the various experiments that were performed could only reflect the prejudices of the experimenters (see § 5.1).
In addition, here are some conclusions reached by some theorists of psi: The PSI is a source of myths, and the parapsychologist must analyze these myths about the psycho-sociological. Any event psi is the minimum meaningful coincidence, partly as a result of an arbitrary structure in which it makes sense. The PSI shows the influence of the intentionality of the psyche of the material world. Considering that psi exists, a methodology to prove the survival of the soul seems impossible to implement (indeterminacy). Psi phenomena are "elusive", that is to say, they often slip away when attempting to objectification.
VII. Princip
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